FOREIGN POLICY AND DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS DURING THE REIGN OF MIRZO ULUGBEK
Abstract
This article analyzes the foreign policy and diplomatic relations during the reign of Mirzo Ulugbek, a prominent figure of the Timurid Renaissance, ruler, and encyclopedic scholar. Following the political transitions after Amir Temur’s death, the restoration and development of diplomatic, trade, and economic relations with neighboring countries–specifically China, India, Tibet, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire–under Shahrukh Mirza and Mirzo Ulugbek are examined. Based on the provided lecture materials, the article highlights the unique pragmatic aspects of Ulugbek’s diplomacy, the exchange of trade caravans along the Great Silk Road, and the role of cultural and scientific diplomacy.
Vol. 9, (Issue 2/2026) https://doi.org/10.57033/mijournals-2026-9-0189 Feruza MAKHMASOBIROVA a
a Trainee Teacher, Department of Islamic History and Source Studies – IRCICA, International Islamic Academy of Uzbekistan, FOREIGN POLICY AND DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS DURING THE REIGN OF MIRZO ULUGBEK Abstract. This article analyzes the foreign policy and diplomatic relations during the reign of Mirzo Ulugbek, a prominent figure of the Timurid Renaissance, ruler, and encyclopedic scholar. Following the political transitions after Amir Temur’s death, the restoration and development of diplomatic, trade, and economic relations with neighboring countries–specifically China, India, Tibet, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire– under Shahrukh Mirza and Mirzo Ulugbek are examined. Based on the provided lecture materials, the article highlights the unique pragmatic aspects of Ulugbek’s diplomacy, the exchange of trade caravans along the Great Silk Road, and the role of cultural and scientific diplomacy.
Keywords: Mirzo Ulugbek, Timurid diplomacy, Mavarannahr, China (Dai Ming), Great Silk Road, embassy relations, Abdurazzak Samarkandi, cultural diplomacy. INTRODUCTION Historically, the foundation of Timurid diplomacy was established by Amir Temur, who left a profound legacy as a far-sighted and skilled diplomat. During his reign, extensive relations were maintained with European monarchs, including King Enrique III of Spain, King Charles VI of France, and King Henry IV of England, alongside strong ties with Eastern empires like China and India. Amir Temur sought to create a unified economic and strategic space to strengthen interaction between Europe and Asia, focusing heavily on trade and economic cooperation.
However, following his death, the diplomatic mechanisms under his successors, including his beloved grandson, the ruler and encyclopedic scientist Mirzo Ulugbek, underwent a significant shift. Although Ulugbek’s diplomacy absorbed the finest qualities of Amir Temur’s legacy while emphasizing peace and pragmatic stability, it has not
been as comprehensively studied as Amir Temur’s era. This article aims to analyze the structural characteristics, diplomatic missions, and foreign policy directions during the reign of Mirzo Ulugbek.
MAIN PART Mirzo Muhammad ibn Shahrukh ibn Temur Ulugbek Guragani, a great astronomer, mathematician, and prominent statesman, was born on March 22, 1394, in Sultaniya, located in modern-day Azerbaijan. Following the death of Amir Temur in 1405, the vast empire–stretching from the Mediterranean to Northern India–was divided among his sons and grandsons. Shahrukh Mirza became the supreme ruler of the Timurid Empire with his capital in Herat, while the governance of Mavarannahr was entrusted to his eldest son, Mirzo Ulugbek, who was declared the ruler of Samarkand in 1409. Eventually, following his father’s death, Ulugbek became the head of the Timurid dynasty in 1447, ruling Mavarannahr directly until 1449 (Matvievskaya & Rozenfeld, 1983). Ulugbek was highly educated, possessing an extraordinary memory, fluency in Arabic and Persian, and a deep knowledge of Turkic poetry. Under his leadership, Samarkand transformed into a global center of medieval science. He established a renowned scientific school that brought together brilliant astronomers and mathematicians, including Qadizade Rumi, Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid al-Kashi, and Ali Qushji. Between 1417 and 1420, Ulugbek built his first magnificent madrasah in Samarkand’s Registan, followed by two others in Gijduvan and Bukhara, which functioned as top-tier universities of the Islamic world.
Ulugbek’s ultimate passion was astronomy, culminating in the construction of his famous observatory and the completion of his monumental work, Zij-i Sultani (“The New Astronomical Tables of Gurgan”) in 1444. This work, completed after thirty years of meticulous observation, surpassed previous Eastern and Western astronomical achievements and was soon translated into Latin, serving alongside Claudius Ptolemy’s Almagest in European observatories.
During the reign of Ulugbek and his father Shahrukh, diplomatic relations with neighboring countries served as the primary tool for expanding economic ties and securing international trade along the Great Silk Road. The primary focus of their diplomacy was restoring trade relations with China, which had temporarily ceased after Amir Temur’s death.
Vol. 9, (Issue 2/2026) During the first quarter of the 15th century, constant embassy exchanges took place between China and the Timurid states. As recorded by the historian Abdurazzak Samarkandi, the emperors of the Dai Ming (Ming Dynasty) actively sought to develop trade and friendly ties with the Timurids. Between April 18 and May 17, 1417, the Chinese Emperor sent ambassadors with letters stating that “the doors of unity must be opened” to ensure the unhindered and safe movement of merchants and citizens across both empires (Karimova et al., 2014).
In response, Timurid diplomatic missions were frequently dispatched to Khanbaliq (Beijing). In 1418, Shahrukh’s embassy led by Ardasher Tavachi arrived in China, followed by a return Chinese delegation led by Li Da and Zhong Ku to Samarkand and Herat, where valuable gifts were exchanged. The peak of these relations occurred in 1420 when Shahrukh and Ulugbek organized a massive trade caravan consisting of 530 people to China (Samarkandi, 2008). Shodikhodja and Amir Kukcha led Shahrukh’s envoys, while Sultanshah and Muhammad Bakhshi led Ulugbek’s ambassadors, with Ghiyath al-Din Naqqash serving as the official secretary. This delegation spent two years in China before returning in 1422 (Karimova et al., 2014). Data shows that between 1388 and 1500, more than 120 embassy groups from Tashkent, Samarkand, Herat, and other regional centers traveled to China. Mavarannahr merchants exported horses, camels, donkeys, precious stones, jewelry, and local medicinal plants to China, while importing silk fabrics, porcelain, tea, and Chinese medicinal herbs. Beyond China, good neighborly relations were established with Tibet and India. In 1421, ambassadors from Tibet visited Samarkand and Bukhara. Furthermore, between 1441 and 1444, Shahrukh sent a diplomatic mission led by Abdurazzak Samarkandi to the Vijayanagar court in India via Kirman and Hormuz. Relations were also successfully restored with the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. Following embassy exchanges, Shahrukh received Egyptian ambassadors in 1439–1440 and subsequently sent a joint mission with Ulugbek, led by Sayyid Shamsuddin Muhammad Zamzami, to Egypt (Samarkandi, 2008:119).
The era of Mirzo Ulugbek and Shahrukh Mirza was characterized not only by an unparalleled renaissance in science, art, and literature but also by the successful restoration of international ties disrupted during the post-Temur civil strifes (Akhmedov, 1991:132).
CONCLUSION Ulugbek’s diplomacy was highly pragmatic and realistic rather than idealistic. Unlike his grandfather Amir Temur, who often employed foreigners for external missions, Ulugbek prioritized appointing highly educated local scholars and intellectuals as diplomats, extending the durations of their missions to achieve long-term stability. Ultimately, Ulugbek can be regarded as a pioneer of cultural and scientific diplomacy. By transforming Samarkand into a tolerant, highly advanced scientific hub with excellent infrastructure, he attracted scholars and dignitaries from all over the world. Long after his tragic death, these individuals continued to act as international heralds of Ulugbek’s scientific achievements and Timurid cultural heritage.
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