SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITIES OF TIMURID PERIOD

https://doi.org/10.57033/mijournals-2026-9-0199 Doston MUSTAFAEV a

a Teacher of International Islamic Academy of Uzbekistan Email id: burhon9192@gmail.com SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITIES OF TIMURID PERIOD Abstract. This article examines the scientific activities of Sayyid Sharif Jurjani (1340–1413) during his residence in Samarkand under the patronage of Amir Timur and analyzes his contribution to the intellectual development of the Timurid era. The study highlights Amir Timur’s policy of gathering distinguished scholars from different regions of the Islamic world and transforming Samarkand into a major center of learning. Special attention is given to Jurjani’s arrival in Samarkand, his scholarly relationship with Amir Timur, and his famous intellectual debates with Sa'duddin Taftazani, which significantly influenced the development of Islamic theology, logic, and philosophy. The article also explores Jurjani’s role as a leading teacher in Timurid madrasas and examines the influence he exerted on a generation of prominent scholars, including Qadizada Rumi, Fathullah Shirvani, Ibn Arabshah, and others. Furthermore, the research discusses the dissemination of Jurjani’s works throughout the Islamic world and their enduring place in the educational curriculum of madrasas. The findings demonstrate that Jurjani’s nearly two decades of scholarly activity in Samarkand played a crucial role in strengthening the city’s status as a center of theoretical sciences and contributed significantly to the intellectual legacy of the Timurid Renaissance.

Keywords: Sayyid Sharif Jurjani, Amir Timur, Samarkand, Timurid Renaissance, Islamic sciences, madrasa education, Sa'duddin Taftazani, intellectual debates, theology, logic.

INTRODUCTION No matter where Amir Timur (1370–1405) went, he brought the most skilled people in his field to the capital Samarkand and used their knowledge and skills for the development of the country. Among them, we can list such world-famous scholars as Muhammad ibn Jazari, the imam of recitation who was captured in the battle of Ankara, Sa’duddin Taftazani, who carried out scientific activities in Samarkand at the invitation

of the Amir, and the famous Arab historian Ibn Arabshah (d. 1450), who was brought to the capital after the Syrian campaign in his childhood. On the one hand, all this is due to the high respect Timur had for scientists and scholars, especially the descendants of the Prophet, and on the other hand, it shows that Amir Timur was a politician who did not forget the importance of using world experience to improve the country in every field. His noble quality was noted by a number of chroniclers, including Ibn Arabshah: «Amir Timur loved scholars and respected sayyids. He showed great honor to scholars and wise people and placed them above others; He respected each of them and was appreciative for them. He did not spare his love from craftsmen and professionals (Keren, 2020:178-179)».

When Amir Timur occupied Shiraz in 1387, he heard about Sayyid Sharif Jurjani’s (d. 1413) scientific potential and talent, he showed respect to him and gave safety to those who took refuge in the scholar’s house. After meeting with Jurjani, he invited him to Samarkand. Jurjani accepted the offer and went to Samarkand. The scholar worked as a head teacher in this city for eighteen years, trained many students, and wrote some of his works here. But Khayruddin Zirikli mentions (al-Zirikli, 2002, 5:7) in «al-A’lam» that when Amir Timur entered Shiraz, Jurjani fled to Samarkand and lived in this city until Timur’s death. This information contradicts historical facts confirmed by several historical and biographical sources.

The scholar came to Samarkand at the age of forty-seven. Based on the available evidence, it can be said that he also brought his family to the city. His son Muhammad was born in Samarkand and spent his childhood there. Muhammad died in Shiraz in 1434 before he was forty years old. Accordingly, he was born around 1397 when Jurjani was in Samarkand.

In that time, Herat, one of the two major cities of the Timurid state, became the center of fine arts, calligraphy, poetry, literature, and architecture, while Samarkand became the center of theoretical sciences such as tafsir, kalam, logic, puberty, astronomy, and mathematics. Amir Timur, who gathered great scientists from different countries in Samarkand and turned the city into one of the centers of Islamic culture, congregated these scientists in special meetings, talked with them, and listened to their scientific discussions and debates.

Vol. 9, (Issue 2/2026) MAIN PART During his life in Mawarannahr, Sayyid Sharif Jurjani held several scientific debates and discussions with a number of scholars, in particular, Allama Taftazani (d. 1392). The echoes of these discussions spread throughout the world. Even separate treatises on these scientific discussions have been published

. Jurjani, who prevailed in the debates, became famous among the scholars, and his attention was also increased in the eyes of Amir Timur. As a result, Amir Timur promoted him to the position of the first-class scholar in Mawarannahr (Gumush, 1985:92).

The intellectual debate between Jurjani and Taftazani has become a controversial topic among scholars for centuries, and being a supporter of Jurjani or Taftazani has become a characteristic of great scholars (al-Shawkani, 1929:489; al-Lucknawi, n.d.:131). Even today, there is a debate between scientists on the topics that caused a debate between two scholars.

Once, during the famous debate between Sa’ududdin Taftazani and Sayyid Sharif Jurjani, Amir Timur expressed his high respect for Jurjani and said: «Taftazani may be superior in debates and knowledge, but Jurjani is the winner today because he is sayyid» (al-Lucknawi, n.d.:131). Amir Timur’s favor and respect for the scholar served as an important factor in Sayyid Sharif’s staying in Samarkand for a longer time and calm creating.

Although the historian of the Timurid period, Giyasuddin Khondamir (d. 1534), was closely associated with Taftazani’s family and students, his Persianlanguage «Habib al-Siyar fi Akhbar Afrad al-Bashar» mentions warm thoughts about Jurjani in his work. In particular, the historian emphasizes that Jurjani prevailed over Taftazani in most debates (Forbes, 2007:63-64).

Jurjani, on the other hand, praised the career of Amir Timur and acknowledged his services for the sake of religion. About this, Amir Timur elaborates on the letter from Jurjani in his work «Timur’s Rules» and cites the following: «Mir Sayyid Sharif, the

Sheikh Fazil Muhammad ibn Kamal Tashkandi Hafiz wrote the work «Risala fi fann at-tafsir wal-usul wal-furu’ walmantiq wal-kalam» after a dispute with Mawla Abu Saud. This debate was about the debate between Sayyid Sharif Jurjani and Sa’duddin Taftazani in the meeting of Amir Timur. Then it was given to the vizier Muhammad Pasha Atiyq; Alauddin Ali Kochisari wrote a commentary on Taftazani’s work «Miftah al-ulum» entitled «Kashf ar-rumuz wa fath bab al-kunuz», and in this work he touched on the debate between Jurjani and Taftazani; In his book «al-Insaf fi mushajarat al-aslaf», Allama Tashkupirzada writes from Abdul Jabbar ibn No’man Khorezmi that Sayyid Sharif Jurjani and Sa’duddin Taftazani had a long debate, and in the end Sayyid Sharif’s views prevailed; All the controversial issues between these two scholars are summarized in the work «Ikhtilaf al-Sayyid wa Sa’duddin» by a scholar known as Mustajizada who lived during the Ottoman Empire. The work was published in 1862.

greatest scholar of the time, wrote a letter to me in this regard, saying that all the Islamic scholars of the previous and the next generation unanimously said that Allah chooses one person every hundred years as a reformer of the religion to spread his religion

. At the beginning of the eighth century, Amir Sahibqiran developed the clear religion and spread it everywhere. The religion of Islam flourished in different countries and cities of the world. Rightfully (in this century) the propriety of Amir, the spreader of religion, has been confirmed (Amir Timur, 2016:72-73).

After the death of Amir Timur in 1405, political instability began to appear in the country. In this situation, among many scholars, Sayyid Sharif Jurjani also returned to Shiraz. Sayyid Sharif Jurjani’s life and scientific work spent in Samarkand for nearly twenty years contributed to the spread of his works and the views he put forward in them. Jurjani was considered one of the head teachers of the Samarkand madrasas. When the scholar lived in Samarkand, hundreds of local and foreign students learned from Jurjani and became his apprentice. Among them, Alauddin Ali Samarkandi, the author of the tafsir «Bahr al-Ulum», learned from Jurjani, and later became Jurjani’s deputy in teaching. In particular, he taught at Nizamiyya madrasa in Herat and later traveled to Anatolia.

The famous mathematician Musa Pasha ibn Muhammad Qadizada Rumi (d. 1430) was born in Bursa and received his first education there. In 1362, he went to Iran and learned science from Khorasan scholars. After hearing about the fame of scholars like Taftazani and Jurjani who were teaching in Samarkand, Qazizada Rumi came here and learned intellectual sciences from Jurjani. It is mentioned that after reaching a certain level in mental sciences, there was a misunderstanding between the teacher and the student, as a result of which Jurjani refused to teach Qadizada Rumi (Majdi, n.d.:39). The scientist also wrote a footnote to Jurjani’s work «Sharh al-Mawaqif», in which he mentioned appropriate and inappropriate criticisms. Researchers mentioned that Mirza Ulugbek (d. 1449) also learned from Jurjani at the madrasa (Ziyadov & Kadirkhanov, 2019:169). Taking into account that Mirzo Ulug’bek was eleven years old in the year when Jurjani left Samarkand, this might be said because Mirzo Ulugbek’s teacher Qadizada Rumi was a student of Jurjani.

Fathullah Shirvani (d. 1453), who wrote the commentary on Ayah al-Kursi, studied intellectual and Shariah sciences in Samarkand from Jurjani, and mathematics from Qadizada Rumi. According to Davudi in «al-Tabaqat al-Kubra», Fathullah Shirvani

It is narrated from Abu Hurairah: The Prophet, peace be upon him, said: «Indeed, Allah sends a reformer at the beginning of every hundred years to renew the religion of this nation.» Abu Dawood Sijistani. Malahim.

Vol. 9, (Issue 2/2026) wrote a commentary on Yusuf Ardabili’s (d. 1397) jurisprudential work «Anwar li-A’mal al-Abrar» for the son of Sultan Shahrukh of Samarkand. Later, he came to Anatolia and settled in Kastamonu, where he continued to teach.

Originally from Iran, Sayyid Ali Ajami studied with several scholars in Iran and Samarkand, including Jurjani in Samarkand. In addition, he wrote super commentaries on some works of his teacher such as «Sharh al-Mawaqif», «Hashiya ‘ala al-Matali», and «Hashiya ‘ala Sharh ash-Shamsiya».

Fahriddin Ajami (d. 1460) studied in Samarkand for a while, studied mental and traditional sciences from Taftazani and Jurjani, and surpassed his peers in science. Then he went to the Ottoman state and studied under Mulla Fanari (d. 1431). He taught in several madrasahs, during the reign of Sultan Murad, the scientist was appointed as Shaikh al-Islam (Tashkuprizada, n.d.:37).

The famous historian Ibn Arabshah came to Samarkand in 1400, at the age of twelve, and his first education took place in Samarkand. He learned Turkish and Persian languages here and was able to learn from the famous scholars of that time. In particular, it is mentioned that he learned tajwid from Sayyid Sharif Jurjani, sarf, and nahw from Maulana Haji, hadith, and recitation from Ibn Jazari (Yuvali, 1999:314). Also, Ghiyasuddin Jamshid (d. 1429) and Muinuddin Koshi (d. 1437) studied under him and it

was narrated that his master was gaven the title of َ رََشَ َ عَ يدا َ لحَا ُ لُْقْ َ عَلاو ِرَِشَ َ بَلا ُذُاَتَ ْ سُْأُ [ustazul-bashar wal-aqlulhaadi a’shar] – «Teacher of mankind and the eleventh intellect» (Yinanç, 1944:22-23). Khondamir, the historian of the Timurids, stated in his work «Habib as-Siyar» that not a single lesson in madrasas was complete without Jurjani’s works (Forbes, 2007:63). In the Samarkand madrasas, the scholar taught from his works on the sciences of puberty, logic, and the Arabic language. For example, Jurjani wrote the following in the preface of al-Misbah, a footnote to Sakkaki’s famous work «Miftah al-Ulum» on the science of puberty: «At the end of my life, I tried to move to Mawarannahr. Here I saw thirsty people walking around the book (of Miftah). They couldn’t get to the heart of the book. And again, I have met people who are blocked from getting it right. They tried to reveal the composition and style of the work, relying on the reviews, which were mostly damaged. In these comments, you will not see healing for the patient or cure for thirst» (Selim Agha Library, MSS No. 1036, fols. 1b–2a; No. 1051, fols. 1b–2a). Haji Khalifa states in

Based on the concept of ten minds in philosophy, Jurjani was given the eleventh intelligence ratio to exaggerate the sharpness of his mind.

Kashf az-Zunun that this work was written in 1401. In one of the margins of the work, the author cites the following (Haji Khalifa, 2008, Vol. 4): «Sayyid finished writing his commentary on the third part of the book «Miftah al-Ulum» in Mawarannahr, in 803 (1400), in the middle of the month of Shawwal». At the end of another manuscript in the library of Sulaymaniyah, the following words attributed to Jurjani are written: «I taught this book twice in Samarkand, and third time in Shiraz.» I finished writing the end at the end of Dhul-Hijjah, 815 (1412). The author of the book, the poor slave Sharif ibn Ali al-Husaini al-Jurjani, wrote this on this date (Suleymaniye Library, Yusuf Agha Dept., No. 333). There is a time difference of more than ten years between the date recorded by Haji Khalifa and the sentence attributed to the author in this copy. There is also a possibility that Sayyid Sharif had the idea of making appropriate additions in the course of teaching and perfected the book in 1412. After all, such experiences are common in the work of scholars.

Jurjani’s many works refer to the processes related to his activities in Samarkand. From these factors, it can be concluded that several works of the scholar were written while he was in Samarkand. Some scholars also mentioned Jurjani with Samarkandi nisba. His world-famous work «Sharh al-Mawaqif» is a commentary on the work «al- Mawaqif» by Adududdin Iji (d. 1355) (Medieval Scholars of the East Encyclopedia, 2016:127). Jurjani wrote it in Samarkand in 1404, a few years after Taftazani’s «Sharh al-Maqasid» was written. Despite the fact that the work was written in Samarkand, the name of Sultan Pirmuhammad (d. 1410), son of Jahangir Mirza, representative of the Timurid family, is mentioned in its introduction, and psalms are written in his name. The work explores all the debates about the kalam and philosophy. «Sharh Mukhtasar al-Muntaha», «Hashiyai Jadida», «Hashiya ala at-Talwih ala at-Tawzih» and «Hashiya ala Sharh al-Wiqaya» are about the furu’ al-fiqh. His works such as «Sharh Kanz ad-Daqaiq», «Sharh al-Hidaya», «Sharh al-Faraid al-Sirajiyya» are famous. It will not be a mistake to note that the scholar wrote most of these works while he was in Samarkand. The reason is that these works were written by scholars from Mawarannahr, and at the same time, they were the most consulted sources in Mawarannahr region at that time. Moreover, Jurjani himself, being a member of the Hanafi school, studied these works and wrote commentaries on them. His work entitled «Hashiya ala Sharh al-Wiqaya» is related to Hanafi jurisprudence, and it is a side note

Vol. 9, (Issue 2/2026) written in the book «Wiqayat ar-Riwaya fi Masail al-Hidaya» by Sadrush-Shari’a. Also, the work «Sharh al-Hidaya» is considered a commentary of the famous work «al-Hidaya» written on the work «Bidayat al-Mubtadi» by Burhanuddin Marghinani (d. 1197). The book is not complete, but is written up to the chapter on the purification of wells. There is only one copy of this work kept in the Jarullah section of Sulaymaniyah Library. There is also information that Jurjani’s son Muhammad completed the work (Basic Encyclopedia of Islam, 2020, 2:122).

Jurjani’s «Sharh al-faraid as-sirajiyya» work on the science of inheritance is a commentary on the work of Sirajuddin Muhammad ibn Mahmud Sajavandi from Ferghana on the science of inheritance of the Hanafi sect called «Faraid as-sirajiyya», written in 1401 in Samarkand. The work «Sharh al-faraid as-sirajiyya» was later attributed to Sayyid Sharif among scholars and became known as «Sharifiyya». The work is taught in madrasahs not only in its time, but also today. It has more than ten commentaries. Since inter-sectarian conflicts are almost rare in the science of inheritance, representatives of other sects also refer to this work.

Jurjani’s practical and theoretical engagement with Sufism is related to his work in Samarkand. In Samarkand, he took Sufism lessons from Khoja Alauddin Attar (d. 1400), one of the Naqshbandi sheikhs, as a result of which he finished works on Sufism (Gumush, 1985:119). Abdurrahman Jami (d. 1492) in his book «Nafahat al-uns» discussed Jurjani’s way of Sufism. In the work of Fakhruddin Ali Safi, «Rashahat ain al-hayat», it is said: «Jurjani was one of the best and most acceptable students of Hazrat Khoja Alauddin Attar. Hazrat Makhdum (Jami) Quddisa Sirruhu is mentioned in «Kitab Nafahat al-uns», this faqir has heard from some saints, kudwatu ulamail-muhaqiqin and asawatu kubarailmudaqqiqin, sahib tasanifil-faiqa wat-tahqiqat ar-raiqa as-Sayyid ash-Sharif al-Jurjani (may God bless him and grant him peace) found the tawfiq among the companions of Hazrat Khoja Alauddin Attar Quddisa Sirruhu” (Fakhruddin Ali Safi, 2004:144). After the death of Alauddin Attar in 1400, Jurjani began to participate in the mystical talks of his student Nizamuddin Khamush (d. ca. 1449) (Tolun, 2021:8). It is mentioned that Khoja Ubaidullah Ahrar took the path of tariqat from Nizamiddin Khamush (Tashkuprizada, n.d.:157).

Jurjani wrote the work dedicated to the founder of the Naqshbandi sect Bahauddin Naqshband «Risalai Bahaiyya». The work is also called «Risala fi manoqib Khoja

Bahauddin». Although reliable authors such as Sakhawi and Katib Chalabi state that Jurjani has such a work, no manuscript copy of the work has been found so far. Also, «al-Risala ash-Shawqiyyah» consisting of thirteen chapters in Persian on the features that should be followed by learned and faithful ascetics, «Sharh al-Adab» commentary on Azududdin Iji’s book «Adab» and (Muhammad Sadiq Muhammad Yusuf, n.d.:63) also wrote a ta’liq work entitled «Hashiya alal-Awarif» on the famous work of Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi (d. 1191) «Awarif al-ma’arif».

At the same time, in Jurjani’s work «at-Ta’rifat» dedicated to terms of Islamic sciences, about two hundred and fifty Sufi terms are given (Tolun, 2021:35). In the writing of these definitions, the practical work of the scholar, who belonged to the Naqshbandi sect in Samarkand, did not leave its influence.

Jurjani’s works on the Arabic language had a direct impact on the development of sarf and nahw sciences taught in Mawarannahr madrasas at that time. Ibn Hajib (d. 1249) is one of the scholars who left a significant impact on the Arabic language in the Islamic world after Mahmud Zamakhshari. About a hundred commentaries have been written on Ibn Hajib’s work «Kafiya». Sayyid Sharif’s work «Sharh al-Kafiya» written in Persian is known as one of the most authoritative of these commentaries. The author was known by the name «Sharifiyya» due to the fact that he was taught a lot in madrasahs. The works written in the later period testify that this work has a special place in the scientific environment of Mawarannahr. In particular, in “al-Fawaid al-Ziyaiyya”, the most famous commentary written on Kafiya, known as Sharhi Mulla, the commentator Abdurrahman Jami quotes Jurjani in several places. In particular, he quotes Jurjani’s work on the topics of ينَّي َ ـثَلما [al-musanna] – «binary nouns»,ل ِ عِاَفَلا ُ مُ ْ سْا [ism al-fail] – «the name of the doer of action» and ةَفَ ِ طِا َ عَلا فو ُ رُ ُ لحُا [al-huruf al-atifa] – «connectors». He explains the issue by saying: «This is what is said in Sharifiya». In addition, Abdurrahman Jami quotes from Jurjani’s work «Hashiya ala sharh al-Kafiya» and although he does not mention Jurjani’s name openly, he mentions the views put forward by Jurjani in this book with the words «some scholars», «some», «it was said» (al-Kafiya, 2014). in one place, i.e. on the controversial topic of the word affected by سیل coming before it, Jami openly mentioned Jurjani: «From the first group of Nahw scholars, Mubarrad, people of Kufa, Ibn Siraj and Jurjani said that it is not permissible to bring mansub before it” (al-Kafiya, 2014:285).

Vol. 9, (Issue 2/2026) Sayyid Sharif wrote several works on astronomy. He wrote a commentary entitled «Sharh al-Chaghmini» on one of the scholars of Khorezm, Mahmud ibn Muhammad Chaghmini’s (d. 1221) work «Mulakhkhas fil-hay’a» («A short collection on astronomy»). Academician V.V.Bartold stated that the study of the commentaries written by Jurjani and Qazizada Rumi on Chaghmini’s work on astronomy was also included as the subject of astronomy classes at the Ulugbek madrasa (Khayrullaev, 2001:141). As a result of Jurjani’s scientific activity in Samarkand, the science of logic became the criterion law used in all human knowledge in the Timurid state. Logic appeared as a scale of science that measures the correctness of any judgment. This science was widely used in the scientific researches of the Ulugbek observatory, which was established later. Sayyid Sharif not only directly taught Mirza Ulughbek in the madrasa, but also made a great contribution to the establishment of the Ulugbek Academy. Because his students formed the basis of this scientific center (Ziyadov & Kadirkhanov, 2019:169). At the same time, Sayyid Sharif Jurjani wrote a commentary on the work «Ashkal at-ta’sis fil-handasa» by the Samarkand scholar Shamsiddin Samarkandi (d. 1291) on geometry, which provides information about shapes, and called it «Hashiya ala ashkal at-ta’sis fil-handasa lil-allama Shamsiddin al-Samarkandi». Haji Khalifa states that thirty-five forms are mentioned in the work, and a commentary was also written on it by Qadizada Rumi (Ziyadov & Kadirkhanov, 2019:152).

After the death of Amir Timur in 807/1405, Sayyid Sharif Jurjani left Samarkand and came to Shiraz. By this time, many scholars left Samarkand and traveled to other countries. Historians cited the political situation in the country as the reason for this. Since then, most scholars have gone to the territory of the Ottoman Empire and continued their activities. Among them, we can mention such scholars as Fathullah Shirvani, Fakhriddin Ajami, and Ali Kushchi (d. 1474). In addition, the scientific works produced by the Samarkand school became the main textbooks of the madrasas of the Ottoman Empire. For this reason, Turkish scientists called Samarkand figuratively «the storehouse of knowledge of the Ottoman Empire».

CONCLUSION In general, Jurjani’s nearly twenty years of activity in Samarkand gained special importance in the study of the Arabic language, kalam, and logic sciences in the country on a wider scale and popularization of different views on these sciences among scholars.

Based on the information about the scientific trips of the scholar, it can be said that he spent the most productive period of his life in Samarkand. In addition, Jurjani did not stay in any of the cities he visited such as Herat, Bursa, Cairo and Shiraz, as long as he was in Samarkand. So, as mentioned above, Amir Timur’s respect and trust in Sayyid Sharif Jurjani was a unique factor in the scholar’s effective scientific activity in Samarkand.

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